由威尼斯商人的判例看法学“砖家”的思维

龙城飞将


　　我接触《威尼斯商人》是在刚开始读大学的时候。那时英语基础很差的我到一个刚被落实政策的“老右派”家里，借到了一本《威尼斯商人》的英语的课外读物，如饥似渴地读起来。当时我是学经济学，对法学一点不懂。在学英语的同时了解到意大利的商事契约与法律规定。
　　威尼斯商人的故事情节是这样的。威尼斯商人安东尼奥向高利贷放贷者夏洛克借贷一笔钱去做生意。两人约定，若不能近期还款，就割安东尼奥的一磅肉作为赔偿。
　　威尼斯属一海岛，做生意实际上就是现在讲的国际贸易，通过海上运输。当时这种贸易的利润很大，风险也很大。若是货物安全运回，商人就发一笔横财。若小小的木船被海上的风浪打沉，商人就血本无归。安东尼奥的生意用今天时髦的话语就是“风险投资”，他向夏洛克提供的抵押品就是他身上那宝贵的一磅肉，因为安东尼奥自己并没有其它财产可以提供给夏洛克作抵押。
　　天不不测风云，安东尼奥的船被风浪打沉了，货物全损了。他不但损失自己的钱财，连夏洛克借给他的钱也打水漂了。他自己生意失败，却是损失了别人的钱。
　　约定还款的时间到了，安东尼奥还不出钱，成了一个“老赖”。他本没有还款能力，却借款去做风险投资。血本无归后就赖帐不还。损失了钱财的夏洛克就起诉到当地的法庭，请求法庭根据法律条文判决安东尼奥履约。
　　眼看身上的一磅肉将被割给夏洛克，安东尼奥好朋友的未婚妻鲍西娅手持一封某贵族的介绍信女扮男装成了法庭的法官。她依两人的合同约定进行审理，判决夏洛克“照约处罚”割安东尼奥的肉，只许割肉，不准流血，只准一磅，即使是一丝一毫差别也要诉讼者抵命。
　　夏洛克惊愕之余要求撤回原诉，但鲍西娅依据法律宣布以谋害威尼斯市民的罪名剥夺夏洛克全部财产，将其一半充公，另一半判归受害一方——安东尼奥。那个借钱去做风险投资，又欠债不还的威尼斯商人最终成了受害者，成了英雄。借钱给别人收不回来的金融商人却被没收了全部财产。
　　过去人们对该剧中的几个人物的评价不一。对夏洛克，人们说他是高利贷资本的代表，是一毛不拔的守财奴。在法庭上假扮法官的鲍西娅是作者极力歌颂的人文主义者的形象。她是一个富豪贵族女，有学问，有修养，谈吐文雅，机智勇敢，维护了法律的尊严，置恶人于死地。在许多人看来是一件奇案一筹莫展时，却让这位妙龄少女快刀斩乱麻地解决了。欠债不还的安东尼奥在作者莎士比亚眼里是新兴的资产阶级的商人，他身上有正派，重情，温文尔雅等人文主义者为之讴歌的品质。

　　马克思说过莎士比亚是“人类最伟大的戏剧天才”，恩格斯说他的戏剧具有“情节的生动性和丰富性”，高尔基认为学写作要“向无匹的大师们学习，最主要的向莎士比亚学习”。莎士比亚以他不朽的作品为我们创造了一个无比辉煌的艺术宫殿，使我们不断地获得精神的愉悦和艺术的借鉴。威尼斯商人的故事被译成多国文字，广为传播。进入中学课本，进入法学家的课堂。
　　有的法学家讲，这个故事里蕴含了现代合同法全面履行的原则，夏洛克最终败诉是他不能履行合约，不是安东尼奥不给他肉，而是他不能按照合同约定不滴血且一丝一毫不差地割去这一磅肉。他之所以被没收全部财产，原因是他不但不能履约，而且还是在谋害威尼斯市民。还有的法学家说，这个案例体现出法官处理疑难案件的智慧，鲍西娅巧妙地化解难题，最终置夏洛克于死地。从这样“法言法语”的解读，我们只能对这样的专家予以失望，只能说这样的专家其实是“砖家”。
　　现在，我们可以作另一番解读：
　　第一、威尼斯当时的法律决不可能包括允许以割肉的方式履约的规定。这个约定，本来就是违背公序良俗，应归于无效。
　　第二、安东尼奥欠债还应当是还款的。如果欠债不还反倒成了受害者和英雄，把债权人的财产分去了一半，恐怕没有人敢出借任何金钱，也没有人敢把钱存在银行。
　　第三、人们研究这个案例的前提是认为这个割肉的条款合法，因而庆幸夏洛克败诉且被剥夺了财产。如果是这样，我们也可以循着这个思路走下去。既然法庭判合同成立，判夏洛克可以拿到这一磅肉，那么就要安东尼自己取下自己身上的这一磅肉来亲手交给夏洛克，而不是夏洛克磨刀霍霍地去执行。
　　第四、夏洛克的行为是否触犯了谋害威尼斯市民的罪名值得怀疑。如果夏洛克的要求超出了当时法律的规定，法庭最多是驳回他的诉讼请求，不可能在一个民事法庭同时把原告当作刑事犯罪分子予以法办。如果当时存在这样的法律规定，夏洛克不可能不考虑法律后果。
　　第五、如果这个罪名成立，我们就有理由怀疑，安东尼奥与夏洛克立约时是否有意设局，不但不想还款，而且想侵吞夏洛克的财产，令夏洛克上钩？是不是可以这样认为，安东尼奥欠钱还不了，或不想还，就与鲍西娅密谋，让鲍西娅假扮法官去给他解脱困境？

　　以这个割肉一磅的合同条款作为出发点去研究威尼斯商人的案例是误导人的。这样的案件决不是如某些“砖家”所讲的，是疑难案件。如果现实中遇到这样的案例，法官就应当判决安东尼奥还款，同时宣告割肉的条款无效，夏洛克只能用其它方法来追债。莎士比亚作为伟大的文学家，写出令剧场里不懂法律的人们欢呼雀跃的作品，是他在文学创作上的成功。但法学家们反过来向一个不懂法律的文学家学习，实在是暴露出自己在法学上的无知——拿着鸡毛当令箭。
　　许多案件，在“砖家”们看来是疑难案件，那是由于他们总想在法律的规定之外进行自己的解释，解释不通，受到社会质疑时又不想承认自己的解释是违法的。其实，人们完全可以追问要求这样解释的动机是什么。实际上，法官若没有自己的利益掺杂在中间，若不是想“吃完原告吃被告”，依据法律规定进行处理是非常简单的。

2010-4-23
作者博客：http://www.yadian.cc/people/6493/
http://blog.sina.com.cn/u/1430985877

海关总署


中华人民共和国海关对沿海开放地区进出境货物的管理规定(附英文)

1989年2月15日，海关总署令第5号

第一条 为了促进沿海开放城市和沿海经济开放区的发展，根据《中华人民共和国海关法》和国家对沿海开放城市、沿海经济开放区的有关政策法规，制定本规定。
第二条 本规定适用于经国家批准的沿海开放城市和沿海经济开放区（以下简称“开放市、区”）。
（一）“沿海开放城市”，指天津、上海、大连、秦皇岛、烟台、青岛、连云港、南通、宁波、温州、福州、广州、湛江和北海十四个沿海港口城市的市区及经国务院批准享受沿海开放城市待遇的其它城市的市区。
（二）“沿海经济开放区”，指长江三角洲、珠江三角洲、闽南厦漳泉三角地区和辽东半岛、胶东半岛及沿海其他地区规定范围内开放市的市区、重点县的城关区（或经省、自治区、直辖市人民政府批准的重点工业卫星镇），以及安排以发展出口为目标的、利用外资建设的农业技术引进项目、农产品生产基地和农产品初级加工厂的上述市、县所辖农村。
第三条 开放市、区内从事进出口业务的外贸企业、生产企业，应持国家规定的主管部门的批准证件向海关办理注册登记手续。
第四条 开放市、区进出口的货物，应当由收发货人或其代理人填写进出口货物报关单如实向海关审报，并按国家规定交验进出口许可证件和其他有关单证。
第五条 本规定第三条所述企业对经批准减免税的进出口货物应该建立专门帐册，定期向海关报告有关货物的使用、销售、加工、出口、库存等情况。有条件的企业经海关批准可以建立保税仓库或保税工厂，海关按保税仓库或保税工厂的管理办法进行管理。
海关认为必要时，可以向有关企业或工业卫星镇派驻关员，办理有关进出口货物的海关手续，并进行实际监管。有关企业和工业卫星镇应当提供必要的办公场所和方便条件。
第六条 开放市、区的单位或企业进出口下列货物，其关税和工商统一税（或产品税、或增值税）可享受以下优惠：
（一）外商投资企业（包括中外合资经营企业、中外合作经营企业和外商独资经营企业）作为投资（包括追加投资）进口的用于本企业生产和管理的设备、建筑器材；为生产出口产品所实际耗用的进口原材料、元器件、零部件、包装物料等；上述企业在其投资总额以内进口自用、合理数量的交通工具、办公用品；投资的外商和国外技职人员进口安家物品和自用、合理数量的交通工具，予以免税。
外商投资企业的产品出口（不含国家限制出口产品）时，免征出口税。
对沿海开放城市外国企业常驻机构进口自用办公用品和交通工具，在合理数量范围内，也可予以免税；
（二）为进行现有企业技术改造，进口国内暂不能生产或不能保证供应的关键设备、仪器仪表和其他必需器材，不论外汇来源，一九九○年以前予以免税；
（三）沿海经济开放区规定范围内的开放市、县所辖农村，为安排发展出口农业产品加工项目所需进口的种子、种苗、种畜、饲料、动植物保护药物，耕作、种植、养殖和农产品加工机具以及其他必需的技术装备，不论外汇来源，一九九○年以前，予以免税。
第七条 开放市、区内进口的减免税物资只限于本单位本项目使用，未经主管部门批准并办结海关手续，不得擅自转让、出售或移作他用。
第八条 开放市、区使用免税进口料件加工装配的制成品应复运出口。
前款制成品经批准转内销时，有关企业应当事先向海关申报，经海关核准后，按规定补办进口手续，海关对其所含免税进口料件补征税款。
第九条 加工出口项目进口料件或加工后的半成品需转厂加工时，必须在海关监管下进行，并按海关有关规定办理。
第十条 开放市、区进出口的货物属国家限制进出口和实行许可证管理的商品，按照国家的有关规定办理。
第十一条 凡违反本规定或海关其他规定的走私行为及违反海关监管规定的行为，由海关依照《中华人民共和国海关法》和其他有关法规的规定进行处理。
第十二条 本规定自一九八九年四月一日起实施。

PROVISIONS OF THE CUSTOMS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA FORTHE CONTROL OF GOODS ENTERING AND LEAVING THE COASTAL OPENING CITIES ANDAREAS

(Promulgated on February 15, 1989 by Decree No. 5 of the CustomsGeneral Administration)

Whole Doc.
Article 1
These Regulations are formulated pursuant to "The Customs Law of the
People's Republic of China" and relevant policies, laws and regulations
for the coastal opening cities and coastal economic opening areas to
promote the development of the opening cities and economic opening areas.
Article 2
These Regulations are applicable to the State-approved coastal
opening cities and coastal economic opening areas (hereinafter referred to
as opening cities and areas).
(1) "The coastal opening cities" refer to the city proper of the 14
coastal port cities such as Tianjin, Shanghai, Dalian, Qinhuangdao,
Yantai, Qingdao, Lianyungang, Nantong, Ningbo, Wenzhou, Fuzhou, Guangzhou,
Zhanjiang and Beihai, and the proper of other cities that enjoy the status
of a coastal opening city as approved by the State Council.
(2) "The coastal economic opening areas" refer to the Yangtze River
Delta, the Pearl River Delta, the Xiamen- Zhangzhou-Quanzhou Triangular
Area in South Fujian, the Liaodong and Jiaodong peninsulas, the proper of
the opening cities in the defined domain of other regions in the coastal
areas, the areas just outside a city gate of key counties (or key
industrial satellite townships approved by the people's government of a
province, an autonomous region or a municipality directly under the
central government), and villages governed by the above-said cities and
counties where agricultural technologies are imported through foreign-
funded projects for the development of export and where there are bases
for producing agricultural products and factories for the processing of
primary agricultural products.
Article 3
Foreign trade enterprises and production enterprises engaging in
import and export business in the opening cities and areas shall register
with the Customs authorities with documents approved by departments in
charge designated by the State.
Article 4
For goods leaving or entering the opening cities or areas,
consignors, consignees or their agents shall fill out declaration forms
and declare accurately to the Customs and hand in import and export
licences or other documents, bills or certificates for check-up in
accordance with State-prescribed regulations.
Article 5
Enterprises should keep special account books for goods imported or
exported that have been authorized exemption or reduction of tax, and
regularly report to the Customs on the use, marketing, processing, export
and storage of the relevant goods. Bonded warehouses or factories may be
established by qualified enterprises with the approval of the Customs, and
the bonded warehouses and factories shall be controlled by the Customs
according to regulations.
When necessary, the Customs may send officials to relevant
enterprises or industrial satellite townships to handle Customs procedures
for goods imported or exported and exercise actual control over them.
Relevant enterprises and industrial satellite townships shall provide the
Customs with places and facilities necessary for handling official
business.
Article 6
For the following goods imported or exported by units or enterprises
in the opening cities or areas, preferences are offered in connection with
tariffs and industrial and commercial consolidated tax (or product tax or
value-added tax):
(1) Imported equipment and building materials for production and
management as investment (including additional investment) by foreign
investment enterprises (including Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures,
contractual joint ventures and wholly foreign-owned enterprises); imported
raw materials, parts, components, and packing materials which are actually
used for the production of exports; reasonable amount of means of
transport and office equipment imported by the above-said enterprises for
their own use with expenses defrayed from their investment; household
appliances and reasonable amount of means of transport imported by foreign
investors and foreign technicians and staff members for their own use are
exempted from tax.
Exports (except products of which export is restricted by the State)
of foreign investment enterprises are exempted from tax.
Reasonable amount of office equipment and means of transport imported
by resident offices of foreign enterprises in the coastal opening cities
for their own use are exempted from tax.
(2) Key equipment, instruments and meters and other necessary
equipment imported for the technological renovation of the existing
enterprises, that China cannot produce for the time being or cannot ensure
their supply, are exempted from tax before 1990 regardless of the sources
of foreign exchange.
(3) In villages governed by opening cities and counties in the
defined domain of the coastal economic opening areas, seeds, seedlings,
breeding stocks, feeds, pesticides and medicines for the protection of
plants and animals, machines and tools for farming, planting, breeding,
agricultural product processing appliances and other necessary technology
and equipment imported for the development of the processing projects for
the exporting of agricultural products are exempted from tax before 1990
regardless of the sources of foreign exchange.
Article 7
Imported materials of the opening cities and areas with the exemption
or reduction of tax are used by projects and units only and cannot be
transferred, sold or used for other purposes without authorization of
departments in charge and after Customs procedures have been wound up.
Article 8
In the opening cities and areas, manufactured products processed or
assembled with imported materials, parts and components that are exempted
from tax shall be re-exported.
When the manufactured products referred to in the preceding section
of this Article are switched to be sold in the home market upon approval,
enterprises concerned shall report to the Customs authorities in advance
and go through import procedures according to regulations. Meanwhile the
Customs shall levy the exempted tariffs on materials, parts and components
imported.
Article 9
Import of materials, parts and components for export-oriented
processing projects or the transfer of processed semi-manufactured
products to another factory for processing shall be carried out under the
supervision and control of the Customs and shall be handled according to
the Customs regulations.
Article 10
Goods imported or exported in the opening cities and areas of which
the import and export are restricted by the State or governed by the
licence regulations of the State shall be handled according to the State
regulations.
Article 11
Smuggling acts in violation of these Regulations and other
stipulations of the Customs and other acts violating the supervision and
control stipulations of the Customs shall be dealt with according to "The
Customs Law of the People's Republic of China" and other relevant laws and
regulations.
Article 12
These Regulations shall go into effect on April 1, 1989.